Child Development

American psychologist, Burrhus Frederic Skinner or B. F. Skinner, developed the concept of Operant Conditioning. This theory is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. As an example in operant conditioning, passing a complete assignment of a student is likely to cause the teacher to praise the student’s performance, which in turn encourages the student to pass again a complete assignment in the future. One of the contexts of operant conditioning is the principle of reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. Behavioral psychologists have developed a number of principles of reinforcement, including a distinction between positive and negative reinforcement. To understand the difference between positive and negative reinforcement, one must remember that they are processes in which something is given (positive reinforcement) or something is removed (negative reinforcement). In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. An example of positive reinforcement is when someone teaches a dog to “shake hands” and gives it a piece of food when it lifts it paw. Conversely, in negative reinforcement, the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Taking an aspirin is an example of negative reinforcement. A reduction of pain reinforces the act of taking an aspirin.

From the discussion of positive and negative reinforcement, one learns that both types of reinforcement strengthen a behavior. In contrast, the effect of punishment is usually to weaken or extinguish a behavior. A punishment is a consequence the decreases the likelihood of a behavior’s occurrence. For example, a child does not clean up his room when his parent asks him to. Eventually, his parent yelled up to him for not cleaning his room. This stops the child on his behavior and cleans up his room to avoid being nagged about it. Punishment differs form reinforcement in that case. In punishment, a behavior is weakened. In reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened. Therefore, punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. In punishment, a response decreases because of its consequences while in negative reinforcement; a response increases because of its consequences. Another example to distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment is when an alcoholic consumes liquor to lessen uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms. The probability that the person will use alcohol in the future increases. The reduction of the withdrawal symptoms is a negative reinforcer for drinking. But if an alcoholic was seriously injured in a car accident and consequently drinks less, the incident served as punishment because a behavior (drinking) is decreased.

The positive negative distinction can be applied also to punishment. In positive punishment, the behavior’s occurrence decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. Am example of positive punishment is when a student is caught by his teacher cheating on his examinations (behavior). The teacher gives him a failing grade (punishment) and the student stops cheating again. On the other hand, negative punishment decreases the behavior’s occurrence when a positive stimulus is removed from it. For example, a child wastes his allowance on buying unnecessary things (behavior) that gives him pleasure. His parent delay his allowance (punishment) and subsequently, this lessen the wrong spending of money of the child.
The response cost has also something to do in operant conditioning. In response cost, the positive reinforcer is removed which results in the weakening of the frequency of the behavior. The removal of the positive reinforcer results to extinction, which is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior.

Mainstreaming Students with Special Needs

We all know that exceptional individuals need special education. These exceptional individuals are those children whose exceptional needs necessitate an individually planned program of education. These are children who deviate from the average or normal child and they need proper educational placement for them to develop their full potentials.

It is known that special education curriculum differs from that of regular education. In special education curriculum, the needs of each individual dictate the curriculum suited for the students’ skills. Special children need special training to compensate for or reduce the handicapping effects of their disabilities.

It is imperative that students with exceptionalities need special attention and care. Thus, proper educational placement is necessary for these students to develop their potentials to its fullest.

Mainstreaming is one of the time-tested educational approaches that are given to children with special needs. Sailor (2005) defines mainstreaming as “the placement of special education students in general educational settings.” Mainstreaming is derived from the concept of retaining students with disabilities in the “mainstream” of education, rather than placing them in separate groups” (Gearheart 49). Mainstreaming is said to be important in a way that children with special needs can feel what the “normal” individuals feel. Also known as inclusion, mainstreaming has long been used by special education teachers all over the world. According to an article in the Elementary School Journal by Ellen Kavanagh (1977), mainstreaming was introduced in the 1960s and continues until today. It continues worldwide because it is believed that “all children, those with and without special needs, thrive in an environment that enables them to develop what we call the functional-emotional capacities” (Greenspan, 2005). Students with special needs should be educated with proper attention whether they are in a special education class or in a regular classroom setting. It only means - students’ abilities when it terms of cognitive, motor and affective must be congruent to the curriculum that the school is implementing. Furthermore, mainstreaming is defined as the placement of children with disabilities into educational programs whose purpose is to serve typically developing individuals.

In this trend, we cannot discount the fact that mainstreaming or inclusion has positive and negative effects to teachers and to students with disabilities. Many argue that mainstreaming may not be the accurate alternative for children with special needs. In connection with this, everyone must be knowledgeable about individual differences. Not all special children are in need of mainstreaming. Some of them could develop their potentials even they are along with their classmates with the same disability. On the other hand, mainstreaming is an effective placement if the student with special needs is already intellectually and emotionally equipped with the challenges that he or she may face during his or her mainstreamed classes.

Students with special needs may react into mainstreaming in numerous ways. Peer interaction is one of the positive effects of this kind of educational placement. Special children will be in a new surrounding where they can interact with other normal individuals. They can gain more friends and do many activities that they think they are not capable of doing. There would also be possibilities of successful teacher interaction where special children can adapt and adjust to new surroundings with the help of their teachers. Somehow, these special children could think and feel that they belong to the “norms of the society”. Eventually, they will not deviate from others. They will be able to communicate, interact, and socialize with their normal peers. They can also be given enough attention if necessary. Most especially, they will learn how to get along with different kinds of individuals which is very important to every human being. On the contrary, mainstreaming can give a lot of negative effects to children with special needs. During the process of learning, there would be big possibilities that exceptional students could not interact well with normal students. Therefore, their socialization skills will not be enhanced or developed.

More often than not, normal individuals or students would react differently to the situation of special students. They can not usually understand the capabilities and limitations of their special classmates. They usually tease and laugh at the conditions of their classmates with exceptionalities. As a result, the special students will not develop their potentials in an environment that is not suited for them. Their mental and social aspects of learning will be affected. There would also be great possibilities that teachers in the mainstreamed classes are not that effective as compared to those who teach in special schools. They are not well-informed to the challenges of teaching special students in the program of inclusion. In addition to this, teachers also have different views and opinions regarding the implementation of mainstreaming. Special education teachers and regular education teachers do not share the same views with regards to the implementation of mainstreaming. Some do not agree with this placement and they do not support mainstreaming.

Moreover, the school should also be ready with inclusion. “An inclusive school is a place where everyone belongs, is accepted, supports and is supported by his or her peers and other members of the school community in the course of having his or her educational needs met” (W. Stainback, 1990). Mainstreaming students with special needs should be done in a gradual manner. There should be enough adjustment periods both for the teachers, the normal students and those exceptional children. Both normal and special students will encounter new experiences once they enter the mainstreamed classes. Regular students will now be open with change. Normal students can learn about the special education and the people involved in the said provision. Therefore, they can eventually help special students in their process of learning and to cope with their capabilities and limitations in a very fulfilling manner. However, some schools are not familiar with mainstreaming. Therefore, the idea and the purpose of the educational placement are not met. Besides, everybody should be educated and well-informed when it comes to mainstreaming. It includes the teachers, students, and the administration as well. To achieve best results regarding mainstreaming, administrators of a particular school should educate and prepare all people involved in such educational placement. Parents too must cooperate in this program for them to know the performances of their child. If this kind of process is achieved, parents can eventually know how to create an effective learning environment even inside their respective homes. Thus, the change in curriculum must be considered in developing a successful educational placement. The curriculum must meet the needs of the special children and the normal students as well. Peer tutoring can be done in the suggested curriculum. The normal student may serve as the model or guide of the special student. Hence, they will learn more of themselves as they go along the process of learning.

As a whole, mainstreaming is beneficial to everyone if done effectively. If only teachers are knowledgeable and well-informed to teach mainstreamed classes, there will be a very successful outcome. Concerns and apprehensions on the subject of mainstreaming are always possible to be solved if everyone will have time to cooperate and participate with the said program. Though there are negative outlooks with respect to mainstreaming, it is really beneficial and appropriate if the students with special needs are ready to be in a regular classroom setting. It must be made that the child is emotionally and intellectually ready for mainstreaming purposes. They should be informed of the new environment so they can readily adapt and adjust with the setting of a regular class. Education of children with special needs must really be given enough emphasis. These individuals like regular children, need proper guidance so they can excel in their chosen fields just like the normal individuals. Mainstreaming is very important for them to learn and enjoy their lives even more beautiful. Through this kind of educational placement, the children with special needs will be more competitive if they study hard and achieve their potentials to its fullest. Indeed, teachers and other personnel play a vital role in the implementation of mainstreaming or inclusion. They must be emotionally equipped with the problems that they may encounter along the way. Thus, creating an effective and valuable learning environment to special children is also a special task to accomplish. Facilities and devices must undergo innovation to achieve better process of learning. We must always remember that these special children should involve themselves in a placement where there is special attention and guidance.

Sources:
Gearheart, Carol, “The Exceptional Student in the Regular Classroom” (6th Ed.), Merrill and Prentice Hall
Greenspan, Stanley I., “Creating an Inclusive Classroom”, Scholastic Early Childhood Today 20 (2005):26-27
Kavanagh, Ellen, “A Classroom Teacher Looks at Mainstreaming” The Elementary School Journal 77 (March 1977): 318-322
Sailor, Wayne and Blair Roger, “Rethinking Inclusion: Schoolwide Applications”, Phi Delta Kappan 86 (March 2005)
Stainback, W., and Stainback S., Support Networks for Inclusive Schooling. Baltimore: Paul H., Brookes Publishing Co, 1990

Globalization, the Asia-Pacific and Australia

Certainly, there is a necessity to study Globalization, the Asia-Pacific and Australia to completely understand and appreciate its development and economic growth. Though globalization is considered as an influential and foremost phenomenon, it has not displaced a certain country as the dominant force in international relations. In this respect, the studies with regards to Globalization, the Asia-Pacific and Australia is really relevant for better apprehension and perception of international relations. It is also imperative to say that studying these kinds of issues with regards to intercontinental dealings will serve as a grand stepping-stone in developing competitive demands in interacting with the different communities and nationalities in the world.
Beyond doubt, continuing economic globalization is inevitable. Meaning, it cannot be avoided and it is necessary for the positive development of the different regions and countries all over the world. It is with no regrets that globalization proposes immense and enormous chances for internationally well-adapted economic systems. In this world, nothing is constant but change. We know for a fact that economic globalization is a part of the great expansion and development that everyone is experiencing. Thus, continuing economic globalization is to be anticipated by different inhabitants all over the world. It is foreseeable and predictable.
Furthermore, Australia has been known as one of the most receptive and successfully diverse countries in the whole world. During the 1980s, policy-makers of the country of Australia felt that it was essential for the nation to change. It is primarily because of some areas that include responses and adjustments, which are the distributional responses, policy responses, and structural responses, which increased the globalization pressures in the country of Australia (Harris, 2002).
The politics of globalization was unsurprisingly became the point and theme of public boisterous and demented protests. One reason of politics of globalization is that companies were at the middle point of the international debates and arguments over supremacy and business or commerce; that is why politics of globalization entered into the scene of international relations.
The Asia-Pacific’s status of life mainly relies on maintained welfare and enhanced safety. In connection with this, Australia’s engagement in globalization is consistently rooted in the values of the community, including its advocate for human rights (Harris, 2002). Asian economic dynamism has a great impact on Australia. Due to its unstoppable economic growth, Australia has been the center for immigration. In fact, people form different regions of the world have come to live and work in Australia.
On the other hand, poverty is a relative term used to describe the living conditions of the poor. It means unproductiveness in certain things. It is the comparative measure of “wealth” within a particular norm of a community or society. Conversely, inequality is a pragmatic and realistic measure of the dissimilarities in allocation or dispensation of given resources over a particular cluster or division of elements. It also means disproportion and inequity in some things.
South East Asia growth is important in connection with the country of Australia. Due to the inevitable development of the South East Asian nations, the country of Australia has been influenced by their expansion. Thus, resulting to a successful and thriving internationally known country, which is Australia.

Reference:
Professor Stuart Harris, Globalization in the Asia-Pacific Context, Research Paper 2001-2002, http://www. aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2001-2002/htm#what

A Vision of Excellence through Effective Classroom Management

Classroom management has long been an issue by elementary teachers nowadays. Though there are particular revitalized instructions in all learning areas that are improved and updated, more important than these all equipments is the TEACHER who is the best facilitator of learning. The teacher can be an effective facilitator of learning only when there is discipline and proper classroom management in the teaching-learning process.

Classroom management is an integral part of teaching and techniques of managing students both can and must be acquired by teachers. Teachers’ personalities, philosophies and pedagogical practices directly affect their managerial and disciplinary approach (Visitacion 2002, p. 250) However; there are problems that are encountered by teachers such as the lack of classroom rules. Pupils today lack discipline when it comes to rules and regulations. The effective strategy in this kind of problem is the teacher’s proper disciplinary actions and consistency of administrative planning for existing rules and regulations. Right at the beginning of the class, teachers must set up standards of behavior and allow no exceptions. Consistency should be done firmly so that pupils will know that the teacher is not kidding on the matter of class rules. Proper explanations should be considered and should be done by the teacher. Examples of class rules are silence during class interactions, mobilizations and other activities inside or outside the classroom, completion of assigned tasks such as tests, quizzes, projects, seat works, assignments, etc., proper behavior at all times, and the observance of school rules and regulations such as wearing of school uniforms if necessary, ID’s, etc. The students must observe correct habits (Romulo, 2004, p. 14). Habit refers mainly to an extensively practiced and well-established manner of behavior. The physical environment of the classroom must also be put into deliberation. Furthermore, having a well-organized room is not only very impressive but could give ease, comfort and effectiveness in everyday classroom tasks (Reyes 2004, p. 319)

Organized time schedule should also be practiced to achieve an effective classroom management. Otherwise, the whole plan might get ruin in the process. According to Aquino 2006, the time management is such a vital element in creating an environment conducive for learning. There are also principles that should be taken into account in managing an elementary classroom management. Focusing, Direct Instruction, Monitoring, Modeling, Cueing, Environment Control, Low Profile Intervention, Assertive Discipline and Positive Reinforcement are those principles in administrating a classroom (Flores 2006, p.357)

The role of the learners is that of an active participant. The teacher becomes the guide, motivator, adviser and consultant at the same time. Teacher should aim not only to impart knowledge but also to develop creative abilities of the children. In connection, teacher must separate personal self from professional self. Thus, in rule setting, pupils must also cooperate. They should be involved in this situation because they are the one who will perform those rules. Another problem that deals with the proper classroom management is the pupil’s performance in routinely activities. In this kind of problem, teachers must establish and implement routine procedures. It should be done so that pupils will not be confused as they go on the process of learning. For an instance, teachers must tell their pupils the proper behavior as soon as they enter the room, with or without the teacher. Pupils should also know how to check attendance, home works, books, etc. Proper placement of their things such as bags and books should also be guided accordingly. Pupils should also learn how to take part in class activities and how to listen attentively to the teacher or to anyone reciting. They should know when to ask questions politely, to stand when they are called, and to do seat works independently and quietly. Teachers must also tell the pupils to avoid unnecessary movements and unnecessary talking and noise. Pupils in this time lack interests in studying their lessons. Therefore, teachers must consider this as a problem to be solved. Teachers must make classroom recitations or activities meaningful, purposeful, relevant and profitable. The best way is to relate classroom discussions into real life situations. The teacher must be lively with much enthusiasm and encourage creative and critical thinking. The pupils must be free from self-expression and must possess confidence and creativity especially those who are in primary levels. Pupils learn better when they are motivated on their own and challenged to put farther their best effort. (Gonzales 2006, p. 320) Thus, in managing a classroom, the children must be motivated and they ought to receive a positive reinforcement during the process of learning. The use of positive and negative reinforcements could also be helpful in establishing proper classroom management. Examples of these are self-reinforcers, adult approval, peer recognition, privileges, activities, token, tangibles and consumables. In self-reinforcers, pupils give points to themselves for behaving well. They say positive things regarding what they have done. Next is the adult approval, in here, the teacher recognizes the child who behaves appropriately. Adult approval could also be done when the teacher taps the back or shoulder of the child who is doing well. In addition, teacher communicates with the parents or guardian of the pupil regarding the child’s performance whether good or bad. On the other hand, peer recognition allows the pupils to recognize their classmates’ appropriate behavior. The teacher also informs other students by saying: “The Award for Student of the Day goes to the outstanding improvement in behavior demonstrated by (student’s name).” Privileges give students free time after displaying appropriate behavior. Pupils are also allowed to serve in key roles after demonstrating outstanding behavior. Another example of reinforcer is the “Activities”. Here, students can perform an activity they like after they complete their assigned tasks. Then tokens are items that can be exchanged for something of value. Tangible, on the other hand, refer to rewards that are desirable objects to students, but usually not objects they can consume. Examples of these are toys, paper, crayons, pencils, erasers, etc. Tokens can be exchanged for tangible reinforcers if the children want to. Tangible reinforcers could also be used to reward the class. Lastly, the consumables refer to rewards that are desirable objects to pupils that they consume. Examples of these are raisins, candies, etc. Using praises and incentives for proper behavior are reasonable. Hence, the use of sanctions for bad and negative actions must be done fairly. It must commensurate with the child’s wrongdoing. The teacher must punish the wrong act, not the person. The pupils must understand why they need to undergo such things. They should know why they are scolded, reminded or warned. But the teacher must always remember to not ostracize or use corporal punishments.

Aside from giving reinforcements to pupils, the teacher must always provide wholesome, non-threatening classroom atmosphere. The pupils must feel secure, that the classroom is a haven – not a prison or a torture place. As we all know, some children may come from homes full of problems, cruelty and punishment. It will be spiteful if in the classroom they will be meeting the same or worse. So to have a successful classroom environment, the teacher must provide a beautiful place where the children could feel that they are loved and protected. Dealing with children is not really hard to do. Teachers, in establishing an effective classroom management must consider appropriate and well-developed strategies to connect with their pupils. Teachers must know each child to be able to understand his/her actions and reactions, to be able to empathize and to know how to deal with problems like broken homes, lack of love and attention.

The teacher’s personality is an effective strategy in dealing with pupils. The teachers might create a personality that will eventually help in dealing with pupils of any kinds (Ngayawon 2004, p.394). Today, pupils lack interests with their studies because of terror teachers. In line with this, the teacher must develop a well-rounded personality to encourage a successful teaching learning process. The teacher must talk clearly with proper pace, in a well-modulated voice, using correct language or grammar. The teacher’s voice is very important equipment in teaching pupils especially in the intermediate levels. The teacher must be a model of standards of behavior. They must develop pleasing, respectable authoritative but approachable and non-threatening personality to meet a successful learning environment.

Classroom management has never been easy especially with the elementary classroom. However, the success of it lies mainly on the hands of the teachers. It depends upon how the teacher faces various kinds of situations that require his/her skills. Furthermore, the success of an effective classroom environment also depends upon the pupils who are the prime reason why teachers create an effective and successful classroom setting. Hence, the problems regarding classroom management could only be solved through the help of teachers, pupils, parents and other professionals.

Sources:
Aquino, Nimfa Norie, Classroom Management and Discipline, The Modern Teacher February 2006 issue, Vol. LIV No.9, pp. 358-359, 647 P. Paterno, Quiapo, 1001 Manila, Philippines

Flores, Eulalia, Classroom Discipline: The Key to Classroom Control, The Modern Teacher February 2006 issue, Vol. LIV No. 9, p. 357, 647 P. Paterno, Quiapo, 1001 Manila, Philippines
Gonzales, Analiza, How to Become Effective in the Classroom, The Modern Teacher January 2006 issue, Vol. LIV No. 8, pp. 320-321, 647 P. Paterno, Quiapo, 1001 Manila, Philippines

Ngayawon, Celestino, Situational School Management, The Philippine Journal of Education February 2004 issue, Vol. LXXXII No. 9, p. 394, 175 Alfonzo XIII San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines

Reyes, Jeolfa, 10 Ways to have a Well-Organized Room, The Modern Teacher January 2004 issue, Vol. LII No. 8, p. 319, 647 P. Paterno, Quiapo, 1001 Manila, Philippines

Romulo, Rosita, Classroom Management, The Modern Teacher June 2004 issue, Vol. LIII No.1, pp. 14-15, 647 P. Paterno, Quiapo, 1001 Manila, Philippines

Visitacion, Ronnie, Teachers’ Classroom Management Styles, The Philippine Journal of Education Nov. 2002 issue, Vol. LXXXI No. 6, pp. 250-253, 175 Alfonzo XIII San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines